Expatriate Management in MNCs as Knowledge Management

Expatriate trouble in MNCs as companionship ManagementExpatriate Management in MNCs as a cook of Knowledge Management and its Applicability in Reduction of Soaring swage Rates a Case Study ApproachAbstractThis utterance in world-wide Human Relations extensivirtuosos the potential of banish watchfulness as a tool of cognition trouble and its applicability to the decrement of disorder rates in a spherical economy. Companies to twenty-four hour period layabout non inhabit and prosper without near form of globalization.When an purloinly planned expat class is employd, the f menial of information supports cognition transfer, which flowerpot enhance the entire functionality of the troupe. The particularized vehicle for intimacy transfer totallyow be cross-cultural readiness, with its generalisable lessons for the global confederations.In this seek, the case acquire court is utilized on with the test of archival materials. After extensive question into the get together States Peace bay window and its intervention of deports, Tyco Flow Control/KTM Company of Japan and Electrolux of Sweden, supported by an extensive review of current books, this speech reaches the conclusion that the conclusion on whether or non to use bears and in what path they should be utilize must be showd on a combination of the needfully of the partnership and the familys organisational structure.Expatriation is expensive and companies should plan for success if they intend to give an extradite program. However, the association gained from the study of expatriate programs hatful be in(predicate)ly utilised to mange the spread of knowledge throughout the organisation and to develop interventions, which go away lower the general rate of overthrow inwardly an organisation. Certainly, we can non afford to reduce these lessons.Chapter cardinalness Introduction1.1 Chapter IntroductionThere argon a get of scraps winding in the developmen t of multi- national corporations (MNCs) in to solar solar days era of globalisation. Increasingly the write out has been for companies to utilise expatriates on tasks that are critical to the telephoners operation or proceed success. MNCs use expatriates for a issue forth of reasons. In general, the perception exists that it is easier to take hold an employee from the planetary house argument social function, carefully chosen and indoctrinated in the companys finis.Thus, the image of corporate keep back plays a king-size role in the extract and the use of expatriates, but it is for sure non the only reason. legion(predicate) a(prenominal) a(prenominal) times, expatriates throw specialties that the company believes it can merchandise when developing the global market. In addition, expatriates who have been thoroughly learn in the companys procedures can be very valuable during the process of entering vernal markets and setting up the office and administrati ve under structure that unavoidably follows such expansion.Human resources precaution inevitably becomes much complex in an supranational venue. Companies must consider not only the corporate polish and the national finale of their al-Qaeda inelegant, but alike the national culture of the country or countries which they are expanding into. Expansion into say nations also brings with it a myriad of laws and regulations that may easily conflict with the seat countrys laws or rules. The speckle becomes much complex with each additional field office or subsidiary that the company acquires or develops.1.2 ContextThere is a bang-up cut across of look for that suggests that the way companies have it away their compassionate resources contributes to whether or not the company go away succeed or fail (Tung, 1984). International gentlemans gentleman resources vigilance can make or break a newly expansion, and poor management of expatriates within established MNCs can send the company into a crisis. Companies must be able to communicate with their employees and to coordinate actions, activities, and regulatory compliance between a number of corporate and governmental entities. adversity to do so no-hitly can affect the bottom bloodline of action of any multi-national corporation or company, and can destabilise a company that is not experienced in sleep togethering with international homosexual resources.Financially, thither is a great deal at stake for the MNC which utilises expatriates. The obvious cost, of course, occurs if the job that the expatriate is assigned to fails. Such a crucial financial louse up can, as top doged out, destabilise a company. There are many former(a) costs associated with expatriate management, however, that may not be obvious on the sur smell. Employees must be recruited into the create mentally and trained. Their families should receive training regarding the area of assignment. touching or relocation c osts are significant dismantle if the family travels light.Many companies submit housing assistance in the country of assignment, and trips back to the folk country on a scheduled basis. All of these expenses add up. One additional expense that must be considered is the replacement of the employee who enters the expatriate programme. If the employee is already a member of the organisation, his or her transfer to a foreign office will defile the farm an internal position that must be filled. MNCs must also consider the ramifications to the company if their expatriate behaves in a fashion that the host country members consider improper.The amount of ill will that can be generated throughout the host community can be close incalculable. Even though it is an indirect cost, it can be as destroy as a more direct financial harm. Even in the best of cases, when the expatriation fails without loss of railway line and the expatriate returns quietly to the foundation base, the expatr iate may leave the company. When this happens, the company loses a valuable employee and the enthronisation that went along with that employees training.When the occupation of failed expatriation is looked at from these perspectives, it becomes clear that the financial repercussions may be greater than they appear at first glance, but the loss of property is only a small part of the overall problem of expatriate loss. Indeed, the operation of the entire organisation can be threatened, along with the investments from the companys stakeholders and employees. This provides a great deal of impetus for investigation of the issues related to expatriate management and reduction of turnover both nationally and internationally.In the past, one might make the argument that expatriates and topical anaesthetic employees are not in the same(p) category. After all, expatriates face different cultures on a routine, day to day basis. As a matter of fact, they are immersed in their household c ulture. As Hofstede (2003) points out, every culture defines its own version of being socially correct. These constraints govern how cultures do moving in. It has become big personal credit line to help companies and respective(prenominal)s render the different ways that host companies interpret what we may consider average, day to day gestures. The various governments have a go at itd this concept long ago. Virtually every country provides some form of training in culture actions for ambassadors and members of the secern and foreign service divisions. Nevertheless, business has been slow to adopt that concept.Even when MNCs recognise the need to provide this training, they may not fully understand the shamion that the difference in culture has on the employee. The employee more often than not travels with family, and it is as grievous to acknowledge that family members and their success at adaptation have a vainglorious input into whether or not the employee adapts roa ringly. Thus, MNCs that fail to include all the family members in a culture immersion programme fail in their handling of expatriates.Today, all companies operate in a multi-cultural environment. Even small florists chrysanthemum and pop trading operations are exposed to customers, suppliers, or regulators who are from former(a) cultures. Nearly every country is now a cultural liquescent pot of residents, and those that are relatively homogenous still have inflow from visitors and tourists. While it is easy to downplay the importance of a single tourist who has wandered off the beaten path, it is impossible in this day and age of advanced technology to estimate the importance of that single customer.Placed in stage setting, an piteous interchange with an individual who turns out to an important stakeholder in his or her professional person community can be devastating. Attitudes of employees to customers or suppliers can cause tot chains to dissolve, cosmic numbers of cust omers to disappear, or contracts to be cancelled. In a sense globalisation has caused a return to small town preceding porch mentality where everyone either knows everyone or knows his or her cousin. The Internet and global communications offers such anonymity that it is now possible for a companys wallopingst customer to stock a surprise visit and not be recognised. Given the amend or wrong circumstances, the impact on business can be devastating.It is this concern, the concern for the international aspect of all business today, that ties unitedly spectacular MNCs and small, at-home operations and cautions us to develop a greater understanding of other cultures, whether we manage expatriates, or merely serve customers in our tiny walk-in.How a company treats its customers and stakeholders affects the survivability of the business, and retentiveness of well- certifiable and well-trained employees is part of that survivability, especially when it relates to cultural aspects of functionality. This paper, then, addresses the trunk of business that relates to intercultural communication and impacts management of expatriates as well as the home office.At the present time, in that location is a great deal of look for that shows the difficulty that expatriates face on assignment and on repatriation, and in that respect is significant seek that indicates that cross-cultural training offers possibilities for helping these employees adapt. There is a offer in the research between these issues and the types of cross-cultural training that may hold in to a decreased turnover rate. Additional research may be al intimately helpful.When we review what types of cross-cultural training may be most useful, there is also indication that successful expatriates who return from assignment and die hard with their companies may be able to add to the knowledge base of successful adaptation. It is this concept that successful expatriates contribute to knowledge manage ment that I address in this research. Successful management of this knowledge may contribute not only to a lowered turnover rate among expatriates, but may offer suggestions to how business can lower the turnover rate overall.I suggest the concept that expatriate management tends to overlook one extremely important concept that turnover EVERYWHERE is extremely broad(prenominal), and it will be no different in the expatriate world if we treat mend employees in the same manner that we treat expatriates, assuming the expatriate programme is successful. Thus, development of a plan to manage and maintain expatriates has great generalisability for the companys population as a whole with regard to retention. This concept has been touched on in the available research but is not fully developed. A go bad developing this concept can truly add to the field.1.3 Aims and ObjectivesThe aims and objectives of the research will be to research why some MNCs are successful at change magnitude retention of expatriates and what role cross-cultural training plays in that success to explain the steps that successful MNCs take in utilising the knowledge they gain in running(a) with expatriates as a form of knowledge management, and to describe how this information can be utilised by other companies to lower the overall general turnover rate.A number of research questions evolved that will be useful in determining why some companies are so successful with expatriates while others are not. The questions will function the researchHow do some MNCs lower the rate of turnover of expatriates?How do companies that lower the rate of turnover of expatriates utilise what they have meditateed as a form of knowledge management?What role does cross-cultural training play in successful retention of expatriates?What is the generalisability of the success of expatriate management in the MNC as a form of knowledge management and its application to the reduction of soaring general turnover rates?1.4 RationaleThe overall turnover rate of employees throughout the world is soaring. The problem is specially in high spirits in America. The cost to companies of employee turnover is so high that one sometimes wonders how the companies stay afloat. At the same time, there are a number of difficulties with expatriate management.As the rate of expatriate attrition increases, so does the cost to the multi-national company in both financial cost and in terms of morale. In researching problems with international human resources management, particularly problems associated with the management of expatriates, a linkup between increasing rates of general expatriate turnover and generally high rates of employee turnover reckoned to present.Gaps in the research indicate there must be more research into the process of repatriation and knowledge management, for this is the point at which the greatest knowledge exchange back to the company in terms of cultural knowledge should occur. Research must determine what contributes to success repatriation and why some expatriates choose to terminate contracts early. All of these areas will be investigated.The next step, then, is to investigate why some companies seem to manage expatriate programmes successfully, and why some programmes fail. By reviewing successful expatriate management, we may learn general lessons of human resources management that may well contribute to the base of knowledge for the reduction of overall turnover rates throughout the working world.1.5 MethodologyQualitative research seeks to address the why and how of occurrences, fashioning it ideally suited for a project of this nature. Though there are many forms of qualitative research, two forms seem particularly applicable to the nature of this investigation. A writings review will be conducted, of course, to place the state of the knowledge of expatriate management in the context of general management of human resources. An archival investig ation, however, will take and utilise the literature review as a starting point. Through a thorough investigation of archival materials available, additional research information will be gleaned.The case study regularity will also be utilised to investigate collar specific multinational companies or organisations that have had a great deal of success with the expatriates that they managed. Case study get along allows me as the researcher to concenter on details that might otherwise be overlooked in a traditional literature review. Archival review materials will also contribute to details of the case studies.1.6 Chapter OutlineChapter One of the dissertation consists of an incoming to the study and places the study in context, the aims and objectives, rationale, and methodology of the paper are reviewed.Chapter devil reviews literature related to the topics of international human resources, expatriate management, turnover, and knowledge management. The literature review present s various perspectives of the research topic and reveals how previous researchers have investigated the topics. The literature review is expected to reveal gaps in the research and suggests areas that this research will explore. It is guided by the aims, objectives, and research questions, but can also provide an indication for modification of those aims, objectives, and questions if changes are needed. Finally, the chapter provides a framework for the overall research.Chapter cardinal discusses methodology of the research and details the strategies that were undertaken during the research, including data collection methods and methods of analytic thinking. Methodology describes methods that were utilised to conduct the research and defines the reasons they were selected.Chapter Four provides the analysis or the synthesis of the research. It ties together the research questions, the theories behind the research, and the methods of doing the research. Finally, in a good research pr oject, the analysis will actually raise questions that will be guidelines to future research in the field.Chapter Five details the main findings of the paper, gleaned from the analysis, and describes how the results are similar to antecedent research, but also how they differ. The contribution of the research to the knowledge base of expatriate management and reduction of general turnover rates will be provided, and the limitations of the research will be defined. Suggestions for future research will be provided and ways to reduce limitations of future research will be discussed in the context of the experience of myself as the researcher for this project.The paper will be reason out with a bibliography of works utilised in the preparation of the paper, and if necessary, backing materials will be provided in appendices.1.7 Chapter SummaryThis chapter has set the stage for the research project and dissertation. The subject matter was introduced, and the study was placed in context of international business and human resources. The aims and objectives of the research were described and the rationale for the dissertation was produced. A summary of the methodology of the paper was provided, and a chapter outline of the work was also presented. In summary, Chapter One set the stage for the research and provided an overview of the project.Chapter ii Literature Review2.1 Chapter IntroductionToday, all companies have retention problems (Ramiall, 2004). In 2005, the United States had an overall turnover rate of employment of 23%. Companies face fierce competition in the quest to retain employees (Mitchell, Holtom, and Lee, 2001). Hay (2002) reports that in the past 10 years, employee turnover increased by 25%, making the problem of retaining employees the number one employment problem in the United States (Kaye Jordan-Evans, 2000). With a shortage of potential labour until approximately 2012, the pool of qualified and available labour is small, making the problem of retention much more intense. Clearly a need exists to lower the rate of turnover in companies. While the presented references above are in evidence of a turnover rate in American companies, the issue is global, especially in this day of large multi-national companies.The problem is, perhaps, even more pronounced with expatriates due to the large amount of money it takes each MNC to recruit, train, and support expatriates and their families. A retained expatriate can be an asset to the company a lost expatriate represents a significant financial drain. It makes sense, then, to explore how expatriates can be retained, and to utilise the knowledge gained to lower the overall turnover rate of the company, thereby increasing retention and decreasing costs. Retention of expatriates contributes to the companys knowledge management capacities and to retention of trained employees in the MNCs, and cross-cultural training seems to offer one of the most smart avenues to encourage retentio n of qualified employees.The literature review served as a basis of study during the preliminary phases of the project and was supplemented a great deal in the final paper. As the research developed, it was clear that there were many avenues that needed to be explored to gain a holistic understanding of the issues relating to international human resources management and successful administration of expatriation programmes. Through the course of the initial review of the literature, a link became clear between lessons wise(p) by companies that have successful expatriation programmes and companies that could utilise this knowledge in lowering their turnover rates. All businesses today, it is clear, have a multi-cultural aspect that must be addressed. The issue then becomes how multi-culturalism will be addressed and how knowledge gained from successful expatriation can contribute to the overall knowledge of successful MNCs (Sizoo, Plank, Iskat, and Sernie, 2005). This project will he lp bridge the gap between large MNCs with offices in other nations, and smaller companies that may benefit from their knowlege.2.2 Importance of International Human Resources ManagementTye and subgenus Chen (2005) state that capturing and maintaining a competitive expediency is not the most important issue for many organisations. At its lowest common denominator, the purpose of business is to make a profit. Friedman (1970) even argued that business has a social responsibility to make a profit for its investors. Friedman argued that business leaders needed to do whatever it takes to acquire and maintain that profit. Tye and Chen (2005) point out that there is now a general consensus that big companies must operate successfully on a global level in order to capture and maintain the competitive wages which leads to profit.As businesses have an increasingly international role, how to manage the people in the business on a global scale becomes a huge challenge (Lee and Liu, 2006). Bu sinesses cannot operate without people, despite an increasing dependence upon technology. In order to retain people, there must be adequate human resources management systems. For large international companies, then, the human resources passenger cars and their systems must aim towards acquiring and maintaining people who are competent not only in business, but in cognitive process in the international environment (Liu and Lee, 2006).For many years, the tendency was to believe that management was the same whether the company being managed was in the managers home country or a foreign land. This universal approach to management is considered an ethnocentric approach (Dowling and Welch, 2004), in which the values established in a corporations home country are the values that predominate through every field office. In this form of management, all of the practices of the business stem from practices and values of the home office, and all of the employees that become managers in field offices are hired and trained at the home office. While this approach offers certain advantages (for instance, the level of corporate control), it is not the most beneficial model of operation if one hopes to expand the business significantly in the targeted areas of other nations (Kuhn, 2000). Indeed, as Kuhn points out, ethnocentric organisations have fundamentally no advantage in local market areas.What difference is there between a human resources manager that deals with employees within the bounds of one nation, and one that deals with international situations? The basic difference is that when dealing with international human resources issues, the level of complexity between the rules, regulations, and operating mechanisms between different countries can be overwhelming, especially when more than one group of national workers is involved (Dowling and Welch, 2004). The difference may well be less pronounced in the nations of the European Union, where laws and operating regulat ions have been standardised to a degree, but national identities of workers complicate the issues. Indeed, even strong cultural identification roles can impact the path that international human resources managers must take. In addition, employees who will be fulfilling an expatriate role must be carefully matched to the job.In 1998, rock music suggested that the selection of expatriate employees is much more difficult than selecting staff office who will remain in the home office. This contention, however, is one of the concepts that will be investigated in the research. While Dowling and Welch argue that the selection of expatriates with personal issues such as low capacity to adapt, poor emotional perceptual constancy, or bad attitude leads towards reverse of the match to the expatriates job, one might argue just as intimately that a bad attitude, immaturity, and refusal to adapt are indicative of poor selection of any employee, not just an employee who will be expatriated. I t may seem simplistic, but a good, stable expatriate employee will make a good employee. On the other hand, a good employee will not necessarily make an adequate expatriate. It is this rule that led to my decision to explore a potential link between expatriate retention and retention of the average employee. Sizoo et al. (2005) concluded that adequate cross-cultural training of any employee in a MNC greatly increases employee effectiveness and can lead to increased promotions and correct raises, which cut turnover rates. The argument could also be made that the same would apply in smaller companies, especially those in areas with a high cross-cultural population component.An expatriate who has negative attitude, poor emotional stability and maturity, lack of language ability, and a low level of adaptability also is a poor choice in host nations, where the chance of culture transgress already exists (Dowling Welch, 2004).2.3 TurnoverTodays companies are faced with the prospect of continually substitute employees who have left the company. The cost of turnover is high both in direct turnover rates related to the physical process of hiring and blast and in the indirect rates of education, checking of the references, and so on. The costs are even higher if the member that leaves is a member of the expatriates, or if the member has belatedly repatriated at cost to the company. Thus the company cannot afford to keep surrogate employees from a financial cost and a morale cost.Some turnover is caused by tension with management while other turnover is caused by having unclear job expectations. Increasingly in the international arena employees leave because they do not understand what they have to do to get ahead, or they feel they followed the companys directions and are still not appreciated for the service they have rendered.Peter Senge has identified three types of leaders the peer leader, the line manager and the executive. Each one works to help build colla boration, to educate staff, and to alter the company culture. Teamwork and teaching should be utilised as a method of advancement (Senge 1990, 1996) and it is in this way that the expatriate can be particularly utilised. These employees can become leaders, and be promoted to management in the future.2.4 Four Approaches to Management OrientationWhat exactly constitutes a multi-national company? Loosely defined, it is a corporation or large company that provides goods and/or service in more than one country. The MNC may have operations in a becoming number of other countries. To be able to supply goods or services across national lines, the company must have significant resources. Thus, MNCs by their definition have access to a great deal of money or financial backing. The company is financially able to acquire the goods, services, and personnel acquired to function at a high level. To put it bluntly, companies with large budgets can purchase the best few people would argue that a m ulti-national company as large, for example, as Wal-Mart, will have an operating budget large than some small companies.Given that many companies have budgets that can buy the best, why is the expatriate tribulation rate so high? color and Mendenhall (1990) pointed out that over 40% of all assigned expatriates return home early, and the expatriates that remain in the host nation, only 50% function effectively. Does the failure of the expatriate lie solely in the personality and training of the individual expatriate? Some evidence suggests that failure may be associated with the approach to management that the multi-national organisation chooses. Management approaches in multi-national companies can be polycentric, ethnocentric, geocentric, or electocentric. Each of the four models is discussed briefly below.PolycentricThe polycentric approach to management utilises the belief that managers in host countries know the best way to approach work within their country and are the most familiar with effective ways to manage businesses within their country (Banai and Sama, 2000). Companies that adopt this attitude have generally concluded that all countries are different and that local subsidiaries should adopt policies and practices that are appropriate locally and are under the direct supervision of local managers from the local area (Banfield, 1998). Kuhn (2000) states that polycentric organisations offer the greatest local control to subsidiaries, which can be a tremendous advantage when the local manager is effective and sagacity to local culture, customs, and business operations. Polycentric models are sometimes referred to as multilocal models, or even a multidomestic organisation.EthnocentricAs pointed out earlier, ethnocentric management embodies the concept that the home office manager knows best, regardless of the circumstances or culture of the host office. Dowling and Welch (2004) characterise this as a universal approach to management and believe tha t the main advantage of this form of management is the level of control it offers the MNC. Another advantage of this mode of operation, however, is that it presents the company with a more homogenous approach to business no matter which office one is in, things are done the same way managers are selected for the same reasons regardless of the location, and promotional paths remain the same regardless of where one transfers. Kuhn (2000) states, however, that this mode of operation is a distinct disadvantage if one a company wishes to expand operations in the host company. It offers no benefits when dealing with the local population, and may well be a disadvantage in terms of understanding local procedures and cultural impacts to business.GeocentricIn the geocentric mode of operation, the company makes the decision that no one culture or organisation is better than another. Instead, the company concentrates on operating in as culture-free a manner as possible. Every effort is made to have a central control system, combined with a high level of standardisation. The organisation itself encourages all office to participate in decision-making based on a global quite a than local context (Myloni, Harzing, and Mirza, 2004). Geocentric organisations offer one huge advantage they are able to hire the best person for the job, without regard to nationality or national location. According to Kuhn (2000), the geocentric mode of organisation offers the best local advantage, along with the polycentric mode. Companies that embrace the geocentric view are sometimes referred to as borderless, or transnational.Electocentric / RegiocentricThis model, also known as transregional model, is a model of globalisation that combines the geocentric model with the polycentric model. Companies that adopt this model of operation will a great deal develop into a global or geocentric model of operation. In this mode, managers are hired locally and may be transferred within a general geograph ic region. The region tends to be fairly independent of the home company and does enjoy a certain amount of autonomy. This mode offers most of the benefits of the geocentric model.2.5 Other Views of Management ApproachGoshal and Bartlett (1998) present a different few of management approaches of multinational companies. They define the approaches as multinational, global, international, and transnational. In their definition, multinational companies decentralise and tend to regard their overseas offshoots as separate business acquisitions with their own autonomy

Women In The Geisha Society Cultural Studies Essay

Women In The Geisha Society Cultural Studies riseWhen we speak about lacquer we imagine a high developmet state of matter with morden tehnology, cars, teleph 1s so on. But the biggest industry in Japan is non shipbuilding, producing gracious pearls, or manu detailuring transistor radios or cameras. It is cheer And geisha girl girl girl is an grand opinion of Japanese culture, and their elegant per abidanceances keep attracting m all people from well-nigh the military personnel.geisha is an important aspect of Japanese culture, and their elegant performances keep attracting many people from some the world.What do we know about geisha? In early seventeenth-century Japan (long before the word geisha was ever use upd), the predecessor of the geisha was a combination of actress and prostitute and worked on the stages set in the dry riverbed of the River Kamo in Kyoto. The line between actress and prostitute was blurry, as the women would perform erotic dances and skits fo r their audiences. This red-hot type of performance was dubbed kabuku, meaning to be wild and outrageous. The dances were c each(prenominal)ed kabuki, and this was the inception of kabuki theater. tralatitious Japanese views of wake were precise untieed. It was a society that embraced familiar delights and where men were non constrained to be faithful to their wives. In fact it was socially acceptable to be in love with one and only(a)s wife, nevertheless single when she was considered a professional woman. For sexual enjoyment and romantic attachment, men did not go to their wives, but to courtesans. In order to maintain this profession, the Japanese disposal created pleasure qu nontextual matterers where the courtesans could reside and work and men could go to relax and enjoy the amusement.These pleasure quarters quickly became glamorous entertainment centers that offered farthermost more than just sex. The highly accomplished courtesans of these districts entertained their clients by dancing, singing, and compete music. Some were even ren avered poets and calligraphers. Gradually, they all became finicalized and the new profession, purely of entertainment, arose. It was near the turn of the eighteenth century that the first entertainers of the pleasure quarters, called geisha, appe atomic number 18d. The actually first geishas were men, entertaining customers waiting to see the most popular and quick-witted courtesans.Around 1760, women began to join men in the art of the geisha and truly quickly outnumbered the men. The first woman to use the term geisha was an capital of Japan prostitute named Kikuya and became a replete(p)-time entertainer. Soon, many women, whether they sold sex or not, began using the term geisha. The word geisha itself means person of the art in that respect argon two basic types of geisha. One is called tachicata who mainly do traditional Japanese dance (mai). The opposite is called jikata who mainly sing or play agents. Tachikata atomic number 18 usually maiko ( immatureish geisha) and jikata argon older geisha women.The geisha districts argon called hanamachi and some hanamachi were developed near temples and shrines where many ochay be located. Ochaya are small Japanese-style houses with wooden doors, tatami floors, Japanese-style gardens, and so on. They are different from those tea houses that nevertheless serve tea. Its a sort of banquet house which rents rooms for dinner parties, and geisha entertain customers in ochaya rooms. Within the complex world of geisha, on that point is a strict croping system. At the very top of the rank are the grand dowagers of the Gion district of Kyoto. These women consider themselves far above even the freeze off-ranking geisha of the same city. In Kyoto there are, in total, atomic number 23 geisha districts, alike known as hanamachi or flower towns. The geisha of these districts are visited by powerful businessmen and politicians and are v ery expensive. At the opposite end of spectrum are the hot-spring geisha. These geisha work in the watering issue resorts and are viewed by most Japanese as no purify than a park prostitute.Traditionally, Geisha began their training at a very young age. Some girls were bonded to geisha houses (okiya) as children. These girls were referred to as hangyoku and were as young as nine years old. This was not a common dedicate in reputable districts and disappeared in the 1950s with the outiawing of child labour. The students are called maiko. A maiko is essentially an apprentice and is therefore bonded under a contract to her okiya. The okiya supplies her with food, board, kimonos, obis, and other tools of her trade. Her training is very expensive and her debt must be repaid to the okiya with the earnings she makes. This refund may continue after the maiko becomes a full-fledged geisha and exclusively when her debts are settled is she permitted to move out to vital and work indep endently. A maiko will start her formal training on the job as a minarai, which literally means learning by watching. Before she give the axe do this she must find an onee-san older sister. They should sit and observe as the onee-san is at work. This is a way in which she will gain insights of the job, and adjudicate out potential clients. From her, they would learn techniques such as conversation and gaming, which would not be taught to them in school. This stage lasts lonesome(prenominal) about a month or so. later a short period of time the last of training begins. Maiko learn from their senior geisha mentor and follows them around to all their engagements. Since the onee-san teaches her maiko anything about on the job(p) in the hanamachi, her teaching is vital. The onee-san will teach her meet ways of serving tea, playing shamisen, dancing, casual conversation and more. There are three major(ip) elements of a maikos training. The first is the formal arts training. This t akes place in special geisha schools which are found in every hanamachi. The second element is the entertainment training which the maiko learns at various teahouses and parties by observing her onee-san. The third is the social skill of navigating the complex social nett of the hanamachi. This is done on the streets. Formal greetings, gifts, and visits are key parts of any social structure in Japan and for a maiko, they are decisive for her to build the support network she needs to survive as a geisha.Around the age of 20-22, the maiko is promoted to a full-fledged geisha in a ordinance called erikae . This could happen after two to five years of her life as a maiko or hangyoku, depending on at what age she debuted. She now charges full price for her time. Geisha remain as such until they retire.Though geisha begin their study of music and dance when they are very young and continue it throughout their lives. They could be as old as cardinal and still learning the art of their profession. The dance of the geisha has evolved from the dance performed on the kabuki stage. The wild and outrageous dances transformed into a more subtle, stylized, and controlled form of dance. It is passing disciplined, similar to tai chi. Every dance uses gestures to tell a horizontal surface and solely a connoisseur can understand the subdued symbolism. For example, a tiny hand gesture represents reading love letter, holding the deferral of a handkerchief in ones mouth represents coquetry and the long sleeves of the round kimono are often used to symbolize dabbing tears. The dance sends a communicate of femininity but the small steps and the limited range of movement. The dances are accompany by traditional Japanese music. The shamisen, originating in Okinawa, is a banjo-like three-stringed instrument that is played with a plectrum. It has very distinct, melancholy sound that is often accompanied by flute. It takes years to master and exactly a very experient geisha ca n play with the precision and passion of a master. entirely geisha are required to learn to play a shamisen. along with the shamisen and the flute, geisha also learned to play a ko-tsuzumi, a small, hourglass-shaped shoulder drum, and the taiko, a large floor drum. Some geisha would not only dance and play music, but would write beautiful, melancholy poems. Others multicolour pictures that gave glimpses into the mysterious lives of the geisha, and even others would compose music. The art of the geisha is her main entertainment and is most important in her training.A geishas appearence changes throughout her career, from girlish, heavily make up maiko, to the moresombre appearence of an older established geisha. Today, the traditional makeup of the apprentice geisha is one of their most recognizable characteristics, though established geisha generally only wear full lily-white face makeup characteristic of maiko during special performances. The traditional makeup of an apprentic e geisha features a thik white stalk with oral fissurestick and red and unappeasable accents around the eyes and eyebrows. Originally, the white dwelling mask was made with lead, but after the discovery that it poisoned the climb and caused flagitious skin and keister problems for the older geisha towards the end of the Meiji Era, it was replaced with rice powder. The coating of makeup is hard to perfect and is a time-consuming serve up. Makeup is use before dressing to avoid dirtying the kimono. First, a wax or oil substance, called bintsuke-abura, is applied to the skin. Next, white powder is mixed with water into a paste and applied with a bamboo brush starting from the neck and working upwards. The white makeup covers the face, neck, and chest, with two or three unwhitened areas left on the nape, to accentuate this traditionally erotic area, and a line of bare skin around the copline, which creates the illusion of a mask. After the foundation layer is applied, a spong e is patted all over the face, throat, chest, the nape and neck to remove wastefulness moisture and to blend the foundation. Next the eyes and eyebrows are drawn in. Traditionally, oxford gray was used, but today, modern cosmetics are used. The eyebrows and edges of the eyes are tricked caustic with a thin charcoal a maiko also applies red around her eyes. The lips are filled in using a small brush. The rubric comes in a small stick, which is melted in water. Crystallized net profit is then added to give the lips lustre. Rarely will a geisha color in both lips fully in the westerly style, as white creates optical illusions and colouring the lips fully would make them appear overly large. The lower lip is colored in partially and the upper lip left white for maiko in her first year, after which the upper lip is also colored. Newly full-fledged geisha will color in only the top lip fully. Most geisha wear the top lip colored in fully or stylized, and the bottom lip in a curved stripe that does not follow the shape of the lip.The geisha round the bottom lips to create the illusion of a flower bud. Miako who are in their last stage of training wil sometames colour their teeth black for a short period of time. This practice used to be common among married women in Japan and, earlier, at the imperial court, but survives only in some districts, or even families. While this sounds unsavoury to Western ears, it is again at least partly because of the optical illusion generated by white makeup in contrast, teeth seem very yellow(a) colouring the teeth black means that they seem to disappear in the darkness of the open mouth. This illusion is of course more pronounced at a distance.For the first three years, a maiko wears this heavy makeup nigh constantly. During her initiation, the maiko is helped with her makeup either by her onee-san, or older sister (an experienced geisha who is her mentor), or by the okaa-san, or mother of her geisha house. After this, she applies the makeup herself.After a maiko has been working for three years, she changes her make-up to a more subdued style. The reason for this is that she has now become mature, and the simpler style shows her own natural beauty. For formal occasions, the mature geisha will still cave in white make-up. For geisha over thirty, the heavy white make-up is only worn during special dances which require her to wear make-up for her part.The tomentumstyles of geisha choose varied through history. In the past, it has been common for women to wear their hair depressed in some periods, but up in others. During the 17th century, women began position all their hair up again, and it is during this time that the traditional shimada hairstyle,f type of traditional chignon worn by most established geisha, developed. These hairstyles are decorated with magnify hair-combs and hairpins. Geisha were trained to sleep with their necks on small supports (takamakura), instead of pillows, so they coul d keep their hairstyle perfect. To reinforce this habit, their mentors would pour rice around the base of the support. If the geishas base on balls rolled off the support while she slept, rice would stick to the pomatum in her hair. The geisha would thus have to repeat the tiresome process of having her hair elaborately styled. Without this happening, a geisha will have her hair styled every week or so.Many modern geisha use wigs in their professional lives, while maiko use their natural hair. However, either one must be regularly tended by highly skilled artisans. Traditional hairstyling is a slowly dying art. Over time, the hairstyle can cause grow on the top of the head.Geishas life changed during all the time. World warfare II brought many changes to the world of geishas. In 1944, everything in the geishas world was forced to bar down, including teahouses, bars, and houses. About a year later, they were allowed to reopen, after the women had been working laboriously in facto ries every day. The very few women who returned back to the geisha areas decided to decimate western influence and revert back to traditional ways of entertainment and life. The image of the geisha was formed during Japans feudal past, and this is now the image they must keep in order to remain geisha World War II resulted with most of the laboring geisha not returning to their former occupation. It was up to the few women who did return to change the thwarted view of geisha back its traditional ways. Because of the devastations of the war, people post-war wanted to bring nationalism back to the country through a reinvention of traditional values and the arts. Another major change after World War II was the absence of a young geishas mizuage, or selling her virginity to the highest bidder. This reform was also in the form of a feminist movement, because the girls wanted control over their bodies, especially sexually. There is no doubt that coerced sex and bidding on a new geishas virginity occurred in the period before WWIIAfter Japan lost the war, geisha dispersed and the profession was in shambles. When they regrouped during the Occupation and began to flourish in the sixties during Japans postwar stinting boom, the geisha world changed. In modern Japan, girls are not sold into indentured proceeds, nor are they coerced into sexual relations. Nowadays, a geishas sex life is her private affair In her book, Geisha, a Life, Mineko Iwasaki said, I lived in the karyukai during the 1960s and 1970s, a time when Japan was undergoing the radical transformation from a post-feudal to a modern society. But I existed in a world apart, a special realm whose mission and identity depended on preserving the elderly traditions of the past.Women in the geisha society are some of the most roaring businesswomen in Japan. In the geisha society, women run everything. Without the impeccable business skills of the feminine teahouse owners, the world of geisha would cease to e xist. The teahouse owners are entrepreneurs, whose service to the geisha is highly necessary for the society to run smoothly. Men are also needed, but in contingent positions such as hair stylists, dressers, and sometimes accountants. In an interview with the Boston Phoenix, Mineko Iwasaki, reportedly the most successful geisha of all time, stated, The geisha system was founded, actually, to promote the freedom and economic self-sufficiency of women. And that was its stated purpose, and it actually accomplished that quite admirably in Japanese society, where there were very few routes for women to achieve that sort of independence The majority of women were wives who didnt work outside of their familial duties. Becoming a geisha was a way for women to support themselves without submitting to becoming a wife. The geisha women live in a strictly matriarchal society. Women dominate. Women run the geisha houses, they are teachers, they run the teahouses, they recruit aspiring geisha, a nd they keep track of geishas finances. The only habit that men play in the society is that they are the people cosmos entertained. Sometimes men work as hair stylists or kimono dressers, but their jobs are hardly ever long-term. Men arent meant to see the behind-the-scenes plant of geisha to ensure the mystery behind the women.

South China Sea And East China Sea Disputes Politics Essay

southward china ocean And eastside mainland mainland chinaw atomic number 18 ocean Disputes Politics EssayDuring innovation the written report will draw the aspects related to sulphur chinaw atomic number 18 ocean and later on East china Sea issues will be supermaned out.The southwesterly chinaware Sea is strategicalalally an enormously important contri furtherion. break oer it is exacted by states of Brunei, China, Malaysia, the Philippines, mainland China and Vietnam.1While China has, all all over the croak 20 years, made general progress towards improving relations with its southeastern unify conjures Asiatic neighbours, increase tensions over these competing rights menaceen to challenge its effectiveness. Since the multitude exercises performed by Chinese ships against the US ocean surveillance ship USNS spick in March 2009 in the South China Sea, situation attracted greater diplomatic and press consideration2. Some observers see Chinas behaviour in the South China Sea as a sign of assertive diplomacy.3The sovereignty disputes are more than disputes over who owns get aroundicular landscapes. Theyinvolve major themes of solemn strategy and territorial reserve defence, including the protection of sea lines of communication, energy, food and environmental protective covering. They may also be linked to rising populist guinea pigism. The stakes are too high for imminent resolution the rulers of states with naval territorial claims in the South China Sea are convinced that compromise is non in their discipline affaire.4Actors (also states without claims and non-state actors, often(prenominal) as energy companies) focus non so much on dispute resolution but quite on dispute management, with the aim of preventing impinge and preserving freedom of navigation and over flight. The non-binding Declaration on the Conduct of Parties in the South China Sea, subscribe in November 2002 by China and by 10 ASEAN member states , dedicates the parties to take a shit towards adopting a legally binding law whilst exercising self-restraint in the conduct of activities that would complicate or escalate disputes 5One must point out that the obligation to self-restraint has non put an end to unpredicted and potentially provocative reinforcement of already occupied islands.6While diplomats on all sides points out the weaknesses of 2002 declaration, some states undertook 1-sided armed services, bureaucratic and jurisdictional initiatives in the South China Sea, with the sole purpose of changing the political and army status quo.7One must say, that Chinas initiatives ware been peculiarly prominent.8Fol paltrying the Impecc fit incident, Washington has been paying increased attention to developments in the South China Sea.9Although careful to loose its remoteness regarding sovereignty disputes, the United States has more crisply highlighted its by-line in protecting the free transit of vessels, both comme rcial-grade and military.10Such passage is vital for Americas position in Asia, for the integrity of its regional security, and for its ability to observe Chinese military developments.11The US desire to defy this ability to monitor Chinese military development, including the developing Chinese maritime base on Hainan, and the Chinese rejection of this right, readiness be one of the main factors behind the rising tensions.12In testimony to the Senate Armed Services perpetration in March 2009, the commander of the US Pacific Command, Admiral timothy Keating, argued that The Impeccable incident was a troubling indicator that China, particularly in the South China Sea, is behaving in an aggressive and troublesome manner, and theyre not instinctive to abide by acceptable standards of behaviour or rules of the road 13Moreover, in July 2009, the US Senate Committee on remote Relations held hearings on maritime disputes and sovereignty issues in East Asia to observe how these wereim pacting on the region and US interests on that point. In January 2010, the new commander of the Pacific Command, Admiral Robert F. Willard, highlighted to Congress how Chinese naval patrols in the South China Sea had shown an increased willingness to demonstrate regional nations on the high seas and within the contested island chains14In February, the US-China stinting and Security Review Commission held an all-day hearing on Chinas activities in Southeast Asia, with experts reporting intimately Chinas growing belligerence in the South China Sea and advising that the United States needed to engage more with the region to protect its interests, including taking a more active interest in dispute management.15Concerns over Chinas actions in these waters continued to grow by 2010. At the ASEAN regional Forum in Hanoi in July 2010, US Secretary of State Hillary Clinton made the strongest and most direct everyday controversy of US engagement on the issue to date, declaring that th e United States had a national interest in open access to Asias maritime commons and view for internationalist law in the South China Sea.16Calling for a collaborative diplomatic process, she highlighted US opposition to the delectation or threat of force by any claimant, a remark aimed primarily at China.17This is clashes directly with Chinas recent statement that the South China Sea is its summation interest.18Tension was proved when the joint naval and air drills conducted by the US and South Koreaee in the Yellow Sea in July and August 2010 where conducted19In response, the Chinese Peoples Liberation Army Navy (PLAN) carried out military exercises in the SouthChina Sea and the Yellow Sea. At the same time, there give way been renewed tensions in the East China Sea. On 7 September 2010, twain Japanese Coast Guard patrol ships collided with a Chinese fishing boat while they carried out law enforcement activities in the waters off theDiaoyu/ Senkaku Islands.20Chinese captai n Zhan Qixiong was detained on the order of an Okinawa local court, sparking demonstrations in Beijing and diplomatic protests from China21On the day of the collision, Chinas Foreign Ministry spokeswoman, Jiang Yu, demanded thatJapanese patrol boats refrain from so-called law enforcement activities in waters off the Diaoyu Islands.22The Japanese ambassador to China was summoned six times over the incident, once by Chinese State Councillor Dai Bingguo. The event was not replyd until China suspended diplomatic and civilian exchanges with Japan and be to s pass by rare earth exports23Of course, these events may ultimately prove to be just minor indifferences in diplomatic relations. Whatever the ultimate significance, these developments raise fundamental questions about the future directionality of territorial disputes in Chinas fringy seas. Particularly the importance of the disputes in the midst of China, Japan, and the ASEAN nations. The thing is that given their close geograph ic proximity, disputes in these regions experience very different dynamics.24In both cases, China, as a dominant provide, is an important claimant state. In the East China Sea, on the opposite side of the ocean from China, is Japan, an new(prenominal) major regional power in East Asia. Their mutual relationship is strained due to such factors as their competition for regional leadership and the historical memories of animosity between them.25So far, there has been no military conflict between them per se as a conduct of the territorial dispute, but political tensions have been intense.26In the South China Sea, China faces a group of ASEAN nations (including Brunei, Indonesia, Malaysia, the Philippines and Vietnam) that gibe a more asymmetric balance of power when compared withthe East China Sea. habituated the long-standing nature of these disputes, these frameworks enable us to track the record of conflicts and the shifts in the relative power balances of the claimants, eventu ally leading to the conclusion that certainty and constancy have improved in the South China Sea, with the converse outcomes contingency in the East China Sea.2. Core National Interest harmonise to Edward Wong, the Beijing-based correspondent for The New YorkTimesIn March 2010, Chinese semiofficials told two visiting senior Obamaadministration officials, Jeffrey A. Bader and James B. Steinberg, that Chinawould not brave out any to-do in the South China Sea, now part ofChinas sum total interest of sovereignty, said an American official involved inChina policy. It was the first time the Chinese labelled the South China Sea a encumbrance interest, on par with Taiwan and Tibet, the official said.27 there were no U.S. officials denying the NYT report. Its is exceed the Chinese are trying to distance themselves from their self-imposed policy on this one28. In March, Assistant curate of Foreign Affairs Cui Tiankai told two senior U.S. officials that China now views its claims to th e 1.3 million-square-mile sea on par with its claims to Tibet and Taiwan, an island that China says belongs to Beijing.29Once the remarks were reported in public Chinese officials felt constrained about denying outright that the South China Sea was a not sum of money national interest for care of provoking a domestic backlash among Chinese nationalists. Secretary of State Hillary Clinton has disclosed that at the 2nd U.S.-China Strategic and Economic Dialogue in Beijing (24-25 May 2010) the Chinese stated they viewed the South China Sea as a meaning interest. Clinton stated in an interviewand when China first told us at a meeting of the Strategic and EconomicDialogue that they viewed the South China Sea as a vegetable marrow interest, Iimmediately responded and said, We dont agree with that. So they were onnotice that if they were movement Was that Dai Bingguo that said that to you?Yes, yeah. So if they were in the process of extending their efforts to claimand control to the harm of international law, freedom of navigation,maritime security, the claims of their neighbors, that was a concerning matter.And therefore, we worked with a lot of the ASEAN countries who are directlyimpacted and 12 of us elevated it a the ASEAN Regional Forum last July tomake it clear that issues like that have to be resolved in accordance with therule of law.30Since the initial report, Chinese officials have been equivocal when questionedwhether or not the South China Sea has been raised officially to a core interest orcore national interest. For example, a correspondent who attended the Shangri-laDialogue in capital of Singapore in June 2010 stated that a Peoples Liberation ArmyMajor universal told him the South China Sea was not quite the same as Tibet or Taiwan.31The Chinese media frequently use the term core interest, particularly in the July-August 2010 period.32For example, an editorial in a leading English-language paperassertedChinas tolerance was sometime taken advan tage of by neighbouring countriesto grab unoccupied islands and grab natural resources under Chinassovereignty. Chinas long-term strategic conception should never be taken as a weak stand. It isclear that military clashes would bring bad results to all countries in the regioninvolved, but China will never waive its right to protect its core interest withmilitary means.33A review of Chinese academic and media translation on this question concludedWhile no Chinese official has spoken about what core national interestsmeans, there is a growing chorus from within the country for the PeoplesLiberation Army to defend these core interests in the disputed region. Recentnews coverage has brought the term core national interests into the samespotlight as national sovereignty and territorial integrity and raises theissue of how China defines the term and what it covers.34Walter Lohman, an expert with Washington-based Heritage Foundation, fit(p)that Chinas characterization of South China Se a as a core interest is just a bigmisunderstanding or in the process of being walked back by the Chinese.35As a result of the foregoing, Chinese assertiveness in the South China Sea has produced specific concerns.36In March 2010, U.S. media reported that Chinese officials told senior State department envoys that the South China Sea had been elevated to a coreinterest along with Taiwan and Tibet and China would not tolerate any interference in the South China Sea.37Chinese officials repeated this assertion in private conversations with foreign diplomats and the term core interest was used in Chinese media reports. These statements come backd a new level of concern about Beijings strategic ambitions in the South China Sea. Subsequently, Chinese officials backtracked and now deny reservation such astatement .38Still , the issue remained as valid.3.Legal aspectsA) nature and Status of the South China Sea ClaimsThe vast South China Sea region also includes island chains and submerg ed bring downs that have been the loose of disputes, including the Spratly Islands, the Paracel Islands and Macclesfield Bank.) The area became a possible target for exploration by transnational oil companies. In addition, the likelihood of conflict has increased as international maritime laws have slowly been codified and institutionalized following macrocosm war II. Motivated by the desire to extend control over sea-based resources, neighbouring states in the area have increasingly come into verbal conflict and even sporadic military confrontations over sovereignty, sovereign rights, jurisdiction, and arms control efforts in the South China Sea.39During the 1980s and 1990s, most of the disputing states have nominate themselves in a race to bolster their claims to sovereignty by gaining wrinkle of the islands that can support a physical presence or by establishing markers on the islands where physical tune is not feasible.40In some cases claimants have even built structures on features that are completely submerged at high tide, maintaining a physical presence on these island specks under fleshy and mind-numbing physical conditions. Currently, Vietnam occupies more than twenty islets or rocks, China occupies eight, Taiwan one, the Philippines eight, and Malaysia tether to six.41The race for occupation of the Spratly Islands has increased the likelihood of international conflict, resulting in tether cases of military intimidation in recent years (setting aside Chinas use of military force against Vietnamese troops to enforce its claim to the Paracels in 1974), the first of which led to military conflict.42This confrontation occurred between the Chinese and Vietnamese over the occupation of Fiery Cross lower (Yung Shu Jiao) in 1988, at which time the PRC sank three Vietnamese vessels, killing seventy-two people.43In 1992 the Chinese announcement of an oil exploration concession to the U.S. Crestone Company, combined with the occupation of Da Lac Reef and subsequent deployment of three Romeo-class conventional submarines to patrol the area, make alarms among the ASEAN states, which had just called for the non-use of force in resolving the Spratly Islands dispute in the manilla paper Declaration on the South China Sea.44The third incident began with the baring that the Chinese had occupied Mischief Reef (Meijijiao/Panganiban), a circular reef well within the Exclusive Economic Zone (EEZ) of the Philippines (following the Philippines announcement of a desktop oil exploration concession in the Mischief Reef area), and involved encounters between military vessels from the Philippines and the PRC in March and April 1995. It was the capably named Mischief Reef confrontation that has catalyzed the most recent wave of interest and concern over the Spratly Islands issue. That concern was reinforced by PRC military pressures against Taiwan.B)International Laws Related to the DisputeThe documentary background for the confused territor ial claims in the South China Sea is quite thin, and the historical records are often contradictory.45None of the claimants offers unassailable historical or legal claims. The International royal court of Justice (ICJ) has used effective occupation and discovery as autochthonic considerations in evaluating the legitimacy of island territorial claims, although a features location, its history, and whether opposite claimants have a record of protesting illegal occupation may be considered in find the legitimacy of sovereignty claims to particular features.46Separate from the issues of who owns the islands and rocks and whether the submerged reefs of the Spratly Islands can themselves generate maritime zones is the question of whether the islands can catch human habitation or economic life of their own, the minimum criterion for an island to generate its own Continental ledge or EEZ47. Even if human life can be sustained, islands carry lessweight than Continental borders in gener ating EEZs under the prevalent comments of the Law of the Sea. Artificial islands on which structures have been built are authorize to a 500-meter safety zone, but they cannot generate a territorial sea, much less a continental shelf or EEZ. Features that appear only at low tide can generate a partial tone twelve-mile territorial sea only if they are within twelve maritime miles of any feature that generates a territorial sea. Features submerged at low tide are not subject to sovereignty claims and generate no maritime zones at all. The acceptance by the disputing parties of the prevailing interpretation of these nutriment to islands in the South China Sea has the potential to greatly overcome the area of overlapping claims, since some disputants have based their claims on an interpretation that the features themselves can generate an EEZ of up to 200 maritime miles. A exacting interpretation of the Law of the Sea provision regarding a features ability to sustain human habi tation or economic life of their own may well leave few if any of the features in the Spratly Islands able to generate an EEZ, greatly reducing the potential area ofoverlapping claims. Even if these islands were unfastened of generating an EEZ, it is unlikely that they would be considered able to generate one of 200 nautical miles.48After sovereignty of the islands is decided, the question of how EEZs might be defined is detailed to determining the size and scope of the areas where negotiations might be necessary to resolve territorial disputes. The Law of the Sea Convention stipulates that in areas where EEZs overlap, the dispute should be settled done peaceful negotiation among the parties concerned, or the parties might voluntarily agree to third-party mediation or to judicial consideration by the ICJ. at that place is a slowly evolving body of international legal precedents for evaluating the validity of various claims based on the Law of the Sea, and umteen disputants have found germinal ways to avoid rude(a) sovereignty issues through limited bilaterally symmetric joint resource development schemes. The Chinese and Vietnamese claims to sovereignty in the South China Sea are both based on historical claims of discovery and occupation.49The Chinese case is better documented, but the consequence of the Chinese claims remains ambiguous and contradictory.50The Japanese occupied the Spratly Islands during World War II and used the island of Itu Aba (Taiping Dao) as cover for surveillance and as a supply depot, but the Japanese claim lapsed with their defeat in World War II.51Taiwans claims to Chinese ownership of the South China Sea are similar to those of the PRC, and there has been some evidence of coordination of positions on the Chinese claims in the Indonesian Workshops on the South China Sea. The Philippine claim is based on the discovery of the unclaimed islands of Kalayaan (Freedomland) by an explorer, Tomas Cloma, in 1956. This is one of the m ost challenged claims, and the U.S.-Philippines security commitment has been consistently interpreted by the United States as excluding Kalayaan. The Malaysian claim is based on its continental shelf claim. The Bruneian claim is also based on a straight-line excrescence of its EEZ as stipulated by the UN Convention on the Law of the Sea.52C) Chinas Claims over the Spratly Islands in detailRightly or wrongly, many Western academics have express Chinas approach to handling its claims in the South China Sea as a critical test of Beijings role as a regional and global power in Asia in the twenty-first century.53In particular, many ASEAN analysts worry that China has since the late 1980s been working to acquire a blue-water navy and other offensive force projection capabilities, such as longer-range aircraft, aerial refueling capabilities, and more modern, harder-to-detect submarine technology, with potential negative implications for the security interests of neighboring countries in Southeast Asia. The Peoples Liberation Army navy has take a strategic doctrine of offshore active defense.54This doctrine envisions a midterm (10-15 years) ocean-going naval capability in which the PLA navy would be able to assert effective control of the seas within the first island chain, presumably including Taiwan and the South China Sea.55Although the Chinese navy is currently limited in its offshore capabilities and although development of indigenous production capability is taking rate at a rather slow pace, concerns among Southeast Asian countries about the future development of the PLAs force projection capabilities have heightened ASEAN sensitivities to Chinese naval actions in the South China Sea region. Off-the-shelf purchases of foreign military technology such as SU-27s, Kilo-class submarines, and other military equipment from Russia that could speed up Chinas military development have attracted notice from Chinas neighbors however, the time required to mark new tec hnologies and integrate them into Chinas existing force structure and to make them operating(a) suggests that any increase in Chinas military capacity will be incremental rather than dramatic56. In response, some Southeast Asian countries have begun to take limited but significant military modernization steps of their own, meant to enhance their command and control capabilities, thereby creating the potential for a regional arms race around the South China Sea. There is conflicting analysis of Chinas strategy and tactics in pursuing its claims to the Spratly Islands area. Given the PRCs limited capability to take and hold the islands it claims, some see a pattern of hot-and-cold tactics by China that is intended to throw the other claimants off balance until the PRC is able to enforce its claim through intimidation or force.57These analysts point to Chinese salami tactics, in which China tests the other claimants through aggressive actions, then backs off when it meets significant resistance.58Chinas ambiguity on the extent and nature of its claims is regarded as a tactical plot to snuff it or defer any attempt to achieve a negotiated settlement until China is prepared to get what it wants through military strength.59Other analysts stress that while the political issue of sovereignty is a particularly sensitive one during a period of political transition in Beijing, the top goal of the PRC leadership for the foreseeable future is to maintain a stable environment conducive to Chinas economic development. These analysts assert that Chinas defense strategy of active defense is still focused primarily on continental defense and the ability to react to localized conflicts.60Chinas actions in the Spratly Islands area are seen as primarily defensive, preserving Chinas options vis--vis the other claimants as the Law of the Sea is applied. In addition, some experts have suggested that the South China Sea dispute cannot be solved in isolation from Chinas other marit ime disputes in the East China Sea and the Yellow Sea.61These experts suggest that China may witness landlocked and therefore geographically disadvantaged.62Such a condition might make these maritime border disputes more difficult to settle because the strategic stakes for a China encircled by discrete maritime boundaries would be too high. Given the reverberations from sporadic military confrontations in the South China Sea in recent years, all parties have reasonableness to be vigilant for opportunities to pursue progress on the Spratly Islands issue.Ef

The Social Construction Of Older Age

The Social Construction Of sometime(a) historic flowDiscuss the societal construction of of jump on(predicate)er mature and how this should accordingly render to anti-discriminatory companion able do work f ar How has middle- mountder old age been cordially and historically constructed? The biologic perspective of ageing believes that the process of aging is a biological fact which is universal and affects all mint. It weighs the enamor that aging is a fundamental, liberal process which continuous throughout life (Lymbery, M 2005). The biological forward motion believes that as a mortal ages on that office is a decline in function as cells degenerate. at that placefore, this approach views age as connected to a state of dependency and weakness with no possibility for improvement (Crawford, K and J, handcart 2004). However, in contrast at that place ar other perspectives which take into account other elements much(prenominal) as the kindly construction of old age. For example, the introduction of retirement believet that clear boundaries were created which defined the point at which a person enters honest-to-goodness age. Also, other developments in the eudaemonia system much(prenominal)(prenominal) as the provision of exitances, withdraw provided defined the concept of old age. Therefore, the end of employment and the start of retirement arsehole be seen as a major influence in the mien erstwhile(a) age has been neighborlyly constructed (Lymbery M 2005).Crawford and Walker (2004) believe that the bureau in which erstwhile(a) age has been historically constructed impacts upon the current view and treatment of onetime(a) flock in todays society. They none that during the Middle Ages, cured the great unwashed were kickd for by any charities or religious institutions. The Poor Law Act, introduced in 1601, transferred the responsibility of the cargon of aged(a) passel within the family, to c be within the union. T his meant that ripened the great unwashed were now cargond for by their local parish, as families were otiose to support them due(p) to the financial risks of agricultural based society.Workhouses were then introduced for individuals who were seen as removey and sleeveless members of society. This included groups such(prenominal) as older pile, the sick and those who were disabled. As there were no welf atomic number 18 system in existence, this meant that older peck had to dwell in workhouses as they had no other means of support. As the subscribe to for c be go up, the Poor Lawn Amendment Act in 1834 was introduced in attempt to fargon costs by eliminating outdoor relief, this meant that older state were no prolonged able to receive support in their own homes and those in posit of welfare were institutionalised in workhouse. This resulted in older people creation viewed as a burden on society as they no seven-day had power, choice or control over they expression they lived their lives (Crawford, K and J, Walker 2004).According to Phillipson (1998), the concept of old age creation a separate group within society only sur panoramad during the end of the nineteenth vitamin C. As highlighted by Slater (1930 cited Phillipson, C. 1998) up until this period both the welfare provision for the sick, and the welfare provision for the elderly, were classified in the same way with no distinction between the two groups. Slater believes that it was at this point that societies found it necessary to end sickness proceeds when an individual reaches 65, and to tack this with old age pension.The Old Age Pension Act was introduced in 1908 and provided all citizens who were over the age of cardinal with up to five shillings a week if their income was under ten shillings a year. However, although this provided support for older people, the view held by society was to go on in work until they were otiose to do so due to physical difficulties. Therefore, this resulted in older people who did not work being viewed in a negative way, as they were looked upon as useless due to the belief that they were either too stupid or too weak to work (Crawford, K and J, Walker 2004).It was during the twentieth century when older people began to be seen as distinct in they way they sleep withd and held an substandard status within society. It was found that through this period in time, one in five people who had reached the age of seventy were very poor and were a recipient of state welfare, and the likelihood rose signifi foundationtly for those who were seventy-five, to a chance of one in three. This meant that circumstances such as being in poverty and experiencing marginalisation were seen as inescapable as an individual entered later adulthood, which provided the basis for which the concept of older age was constructed.What are the consequences for people in terms of social impairment?Older people type display case social disadvantage in more ways, such as infantilisation. This refers to a process in which adults are treated as though they were a child. This is a form of oppression as it demeans older people by assuming that they are fundamentally different from other adults and are therefore less worthy of respect (Thompson, S 2005). For example, the de land upualisation of older age plays a key role in infantilisation. This is be start old age is seen as a second stage of childhood, with an inappropriate link with sexuality, which further reaffirms the idea that older people are not adults. However, as sex is seen as an action of the healthy, this besides reinforces the idea that older people are unwell, dependent and frail and further excludes them from sexuality. This illustrates they way in which older people are seen to be in need of support and reliant on others, mistakable to the conventions of childhood (Gott, M 2005). Also, by referring to older people by names such as dearie, it dirty dog be degradi ng as the person using the term automatically assumes that the individual does not intellect being referred to in this way, which cornerstone be seen as disrespectful and un believeing of their feelings. (Thompson, S 2005)Marginalisation is also another way through which older people face social disadvantage. Marginalisation is a form of social exclusion, and is utilise to describe the way in which people are pushed to the margins of society, which then prevents them from taking part in activities (Thompson, S 2005). When referring to older people, this is the process where older people are excluded from society due to preconceived ideas that they maintain no use, and are therefore a burden to society (Thompson, N 2006). There are many ways in which older people can experience marginalisation within society. For example, Thompson (2005) highlights the wish of suitable transport for many elderly people. This can mean that they are isolated from the rest of the community as the public transport is either inaccessible or unsuitable. This shows how older people can be marginalised due to factors they are unable to control, such structural problems within society.Dehumanisation is also another factor of social disadvantage in older people. This is because it gives older people a designate of being elderly, to which the individual is then viewed in terms of this label and not as a person with unique thoughts, emotions and needs. Dehumanisation can have adverse consequences as it fails to identify that each person is different, which can cause discrimination and oppression due to its impersonal and uninventive viewpoint maltreatment of older people is a further way in which people of an older age may face disadvantages in society. Abuse in elderly people can be physical, psychological, sexual, emotional or financial. The fundamental factor in this type of tread is the exploitation of a relatively vulnerable group within society. The people who carry out th is abuse believe that older people within society are inferior with no requirement for respect (Thompson, S 2005). The No Secrets document (DoH 2000 cited in Crawford, K and J, Walker 2004) was created as guidance on how to implement and bond to procedures to help protect vulnerable adults from abuse, and also clarify definitions, which would modify government activity to carry out good trust. According to Hothersall and Mass-Lowit (2010), older people who are isolated, reliant on others, have poor health, or who are considered disabled are more likely to be abused. They believe this abuse can take place in any environment, such as hospitals, residential homes or even the individuals own home.What multiple disadvantages can impact on peoples lives?Ethnicity within older age can be seen as a significant influence on the life a person leads. This is because there is a belief that older people, who are of an ethnic minority background, face a double jeopardy in society, as they are suppress by both age and their ethnicity (Thompson, S 2005). glow, Bernard and Phillips (2009) argue that attends are institutionally racist. This is because they tend to be directed towards the majority population, which can mean that people are doubly disadvantaged. This can occur as they are not sleep togetherd within the service, and instead they are they are miss and treated as though they are invisible. Thompson (2005) states that the common feature of racial discrimination and ageism is that they are often susceptible to dehumanisation. This is because it is easy to categorise people as elderly or Asian, however, in reality, these terms incorporate a vast amount of people into one group who experience different religion, culture and way of life. This leaves little manoeuvre for individuality and therefore these categories should be avoided, as the person is then seen in terms of this labels and not as a unique individual. Consequently, social work should seek to recogn ise the barriers which face ethnic minorities who are of an older age, and attempt to work with them to overcome their disadvantage (Phillips, J, M, Ray and M, Marshall. 2006).Gender can also be seen as a key issue which can further disadvantage older people within society. Phillips, Ray and Marshall (2006) support the idea of a feminization of aging, as older age is now seen as a preponderantly female world due to the fact that women live longer than men. This can mean that women are widowed for a great time than men, which can lead to women having to enter residential care due to being unable to support their own needs without the help of their partner (Arber and Ginn, 1991, cited in Phillips, J, M, Ray and M, Marshall 2006). Women are also seen as less likely to have private pensions compared to men, which means that they are forced to depend upon state pension (Hunt, S 2005). This can be increasingly difficult for women living merely as it becomes the only source of household income which can leave them deprive and subjected to poverty (Phillips, J.M, Ray and M, Marshall 2006). Gender stereotypes within older age can also cause detrimental effects. Women can be seen to be oppressed due to pressure to conform to gender roles, such as to be caring and supportive, which can mean that they are undervalued as it is seen as normal and not something which needs to be commended. However, the caring role when displayed in men receives a higher status, as it is not seen to be a typical responsibility of mans stereotypical gender role, therefore they receive greater praise and support in fulfilling the role (Rose , H and E, Bruce, cited in Thompson 2005). It is fundamental to note that not all gender related disadvantages in older age are associated with women, as men also experience inapplicable situations. For example, the male gender role is surrounded by the belief that they are the dominant, providing and protective sex. However, this expectation may come under threat in older age as work is replaced by retirement and their health declines. This can then lead to glare self-esteem as they experience a loss of role within society (Thompson, S 2005). quaternate oppression can also be experienced in adherence to ageism and economic disadvantage. Social class can be an principal(prenominal) factor within old age, as those who belong to a lower class are significantly more likely to have a lower income and to live in poverty. Being in poverty affects a vast amount of older people, and can have negative consequences as a sufficient income is a required to be able to regard a persons fundamental needs (Crawford K, and J, Walker 2001). According to Thompson (2005) if an older person has a low socio-economic status within society then they are more likely to suffer from a state of poor health. Crawford and Walker (2001) point out that this may be due to being unable to afford to heat their home or to buy nutritional food, which increases t he risk of contracting an illness as well as being able to properly recover. Also, they believe that other socio-economic factors act in a way in which reinforces multiple oppression. For example, older people may be scared to seek medical help when it is needed due to a tutelage of disapproval from people of a higher and professional status, such as doctors. This can mean that an older person tolerates their condition for a longer period of time, during which it could cause their health to deteriorate. Phillips, Ray and Marshall (2006) believe that it is beseeming increasingly all important(predicate) in modern day society to go to an occupational pension. This is because there is a growing inequality between older people who rely on a public pension and those with the benefit of private pension schemes. Consequently, as state pensions are low, they have to be supplemented by means-tested top up benefits in an attempt to enable older people to remain above the poverty line.Wh at do social role players need to hypothecate about when working with these service users with particular reference to anti-discriminatory practiceOne crucial factor in which social workers need to think about when working with older people is to avoid ageist assumptions. For example, Thompson (2006) proposes that older people are often subjects of sympathy as they stereotyped as being lonely. However, it is important to realise that people of all ages can be lonely, it is not something reserved for the elderly. Also, many older people have good social relations, and although they live alone, this does not mean they are lonely. Therefore, within social work practice, each case needs to be assessed individually to avoid stereotypical assumptions about older age.Another aspect which social workers need to think about when working with service users is to challenge the concept of ageism. This is because there are many negative stereotypes surrounding old age, which can be seen by the disproportionate media coverage when an older person is abused and dies, and when the same happens to a child. This means, that to actively challenge the concept of aging a social worker needs to perform roles such as assessing the strengths of an older person and what they are able to do, rather than focusing on their problems and inabilities. As well as other positive functions such as advocating on the behalf of the service user, to enable them to gain access to services to improve their standard of living. This will allow the service user to overcome the discrimination and oppression which they may face (Phillips, J. M, Ray and M, Marshall 2006)To conduct good social work practice when working with older people there should be support for the service user, individual personal care tailored to their needs, and also physical assistance, peculiarly when offering help to those who have long term illness or disabilities. There are also other factors which constitute good social wor k practice such as values, skills and knowledge which enable social workers to carry out anti-discriminatory practice. A value base is needed to recognise the common issues amongst older people when interpreting to protect their independence. Skills are needed such as being able to empower people to remain in control of their lives, to advocate on behalf of the service user, to manage risk, and to be able to communicate effectively with both the service user and their carer. And also a knowledge base, that is derived from evidence based practice, policies and similar past experiences (Ray, M. M, Bernard and J, Phillips 2009)An important factor that social workers need to consider when working with older people is the language that is used. This is because terms such as the elderly can be seen as demeaning as they have negative connotations which can be seen as disrespectful. Also referring to service users as old dears or similar names, although it is not meant to be intentionally offensive it can be seen as patronising. This can then mean that the person feels inferior due to the lack of respect shown through the language used towards them and make them feel as though they are not being taken seriously. Therefore, the language used to refer to older people needs to be carefully considered to try fight ageism, rather than reinforce it. (Thompson, N 2006)Word count 2619

Arguments Against Censorship in Music

Arguments Against censoring in medicamentHave you ever wondered wherefore radios have to bleep everything? Or why some CDs cant be sold in stores? Or why theres a little P bental advisory sticker on some albums? If you answered yes to any or whole of these questions, accordingly stick around, because for the succeeding(prenominal) 5 minutes, I am bug outlet to soundify to you why the censorship on our melody is track too harsh. Censorship in music should be reconsidered because of many points such as political views, the fact that actors are willing to fight for their own music, and to the highest degree of tout ensemble, license of speechTheres a poesy that comes to mind when I think about political censorship. A song called Not establish To Make Nice by The Dixie Chicks. The song won terce Grammies in the categories of Record of the Year, Song of the Year, and Best Coun enterprise Performance by a Duo or Group With Vocals. The song is about how they, the bind, matte up about the invasion of Iraq, and the responses to their position on this situation. Natalie Maines, the main vocalist of the group, was quoted as saying that they dont exigency this war, this madness, and theyre ashamed that the President of the unite States is from Texas. Some of the lines in the song are about the death threats that the band had received in 2003. How in the world can the words that I said s discontinue somebody so over the edge that theyd write me a letter saying that I better opt out up and sing or my life will be over. another(prenominal) line in the song its a drab sad story when a mother will teach her daughter that she oughta hate a perfect stranger, refers to an incident where a mother is genuinely egging on her young child to say to the band screw em Think about that.The next song that I think of is American Idiot by Green Day. From the beginning, this song was opposed by almost tidy sum in the US because of the open lyrics that express th e authors feelings towards President George W. Bush, and certain political issues. Some believe that the song is anti-American because of the title. However, if you actually listen to the lyrics, you might see how patriotic the song sincerely is. The title refers to the authors opinion of how politicians these days are telling concourse what to do, buy, and believe, and how theyre constantly dooped by all these commercials and campaigns that eventually turn is into, for lack of a better term, American Idiots. In the song, the singer, identity cardie Joe Armstrong, says that he doesnt want his nation to become idiots, and doesnt want to be part of a redneck ag hold ona, and doesnt want this coun shew to be hated because of decisions made by the government. Welcome to a new kind of tension, all across the alienation.For this next topic, let me give you some background information. The deputation that labels CDs as inappropriate and put the Parental Advisory stickers on CDs is cal led the Parents music Resource Center, PMRC. It was founded in 1985 by Tipper Gore. It was created with a goal of increase parental control over the access of children to music deemed by an unknown source to be violent, have drug use or be rideual. The people to whom I will be referring to are John Denver, a famous musician during the 70s, and Dee Snider, the lead singer for the band Twisted sister. These people were called to a senate audition about the PMRC, and stated their opinions on the topic.John Denver had prepared an positive record for the hearing. After he had given his statement, he spoke by the record, saying in my experience, sir, all over the world, one of the most fire things about music that young people are listening to, is it gives us as adults a very clear insight as to what is sack on in their minds. We can know what theyre persuasion by listening to the music they surround themselves with. To me, this totally puzzle outs sense. Its an easy way for par ents to communicate, and understand what their children are feeling, and thinking. He goes on to talk about the dissipated children hes talked to, and the troubles they have about an inability to communicate with their parents. This would all be fixed if parents could just understand what their kids are feeling and thinking by just listening every once and a while.This next man, Mr. Dee Snider, is quite an amazing and humble man. He starts out his despatchicial statement by saying, I am 30 years old, I am married, I have a 3 year old son. I was born and raised a Christian and I still stick with to those principles. Believe it or not, I do not smoke, I do not drink, and I do not do drugs. Does this sound wish a man who needs to be censored? I didnt think so. In his statement, Mr. Snider talks about how he was attacked three different periods because of his music. The first one, Tipper Gore had written an article in a Long Island newspaper where she claimed one of his songs, Und er the Blade, had lyrics encouraging sadomasochism, bondage, and rape. He actually talks about those lyrics and says that the lyrics are about the fear that people get before they go into surgery. Attack number two, Twisted Sisters song Were Not Gonna Take It was labeled as rated V because of violent lyrical content, when Snider assures everyone that there is absolutely no violence of any type either sung about or implied anywhere in the song. Lastly, Mr. Snider was accused of sexism because of a T-shirt Tipper Gore theme she saw. In response to this, Snider says we have always taken great mental strain to steer clear of sexism in our merchandise, records, stage show, and personal lives. Clearly, the PMRC is trying to make up stories to get their way.Congress shall make no law respecting the institution of religion, or prohibiting the free exercise thereof, or abridging the freedom of speech or of the press or the right of the people peaceably to assemble, and to petition the b rass for a redress of grievances. These are the exact words of the first amendment of the Bill of Rights. Basically, congress cant make any laws saying that people cant speak their minds. If you ask me, congress has done just that by censoring our music. I think that music is the most of the essence(predicate) and powerful form of expression that both entertains and informs. So, why hide it? object lesson values? Racial implications? Fear? The actual censoring of music began in the 1950s when traditional conservative values were part of the peoples mindset. pack during that time believed in those morals, and strived to determine what is acceptable for people to listen to. By the end of the 1950s, members of the society witnessed many young adults and teens expressing new attitudes about topics like sex and drugs. This movement started breaking down the traditional moral order in many ways, and in particular in music.It may seem off that race would be a factor in music censorshi p, but it actually is a huge problem, especially in the 50s and 60s when rhythm and color was first introduced to the world. Some older white people believed that RB was a threat that corrupted the young people who listened to it, and that it promoted immoral behavior. This prompted authorities to take action. An example of these actions after receiving a myriad of angry letter from listeners, a Chicago radio station promised to censor any controversial music, especially RB. A more recent example of racial censorship in music would be MTV refusing to play music videos from black artists. During a live interview in 1983, famous musician David Bowie asked, Why are there practically no black artists on the network? nifty question, Mr. Bowie. Im sure everyone else was thinking the same thing.Censorship is establish on fear. A fear that music will affect us negatively. A fear that music will prevent us from achieving a morally acceptable life. A fear that society will convert signific antly. Not for the better. The people who decided to censor OUR music are cowardly of the unknown, and our music seems to hold that unknown and uncertainty. Theres a song from 1975 called The Pill by Loretta Lynn that was censored on many radio post for more than 10 years after birth control pills became popular. People did this because they were afraid of the unknown, and thought that all their kids would start acting out, and going out of control. So, all these people who are afraid of our music just try to cover up the problem instead of facing it like adults.To end this speech, censorship in music should be reconsidered because of many points such as political views, the fact that musicians are willing to fight for their own music, and most of all, the freedom of speech. Now, instead of leaving it like this, Im going to leave you all with a quote from R. Andre Hall. From the Vietnam War to todays Iraq War, and from the advent of the sexual revolution to todays culture wars, mu sic is recognized as a potential source of power to diversity values, ideas, and beliefs- as well as to influence actions. Those who fear this change try to stop it by censorship, even when, as history has shown us, censorship is idle when change is inevitable.